court martial
noun 1.a judicial court for trying members of the armed services accused of offences against military law. verb 1. try (someone) by a court martial. |
conscientious objector noun
|
An anti-militarist tradition has been observed throughout New Zealand’s history as a reflection of values and attitudes held towards military service, training and involvement in international conflicts. The implementation of compulsory military training was met with a growing movement of pacifism. As the urgency for more men to be sent to the Front Line increased, as casuality numbers increased and the number of volunteers decreased, the government decidedly took action by introducing conscription; a system where all eligible men were enlisted. Soon the war movement was met with protest from Pakeha and Maori, resistance groups such as socialist and religious objectors and the men who firmly stood by their beliefs; conscientious objectors. New Zealand conscientious objectors, during WWI, gained their notoriety through the 14 men who were sent to the front line in France and through the harrowing accounts of two significant figures, Archibald Baxter and Mark Briggs.
Why did New Zealanders go to war?
At the time war was declared, New Zealanders had little idea about what the war involved, the effect it would have on then and the expectation of fighting for the British Empire. Of the 240,000 New Zealand men, aged between 20 and 45 in 1915, 92,000 volunteered and 82,000 were conscripted to fight in WWI. Opportunistically the men viewed the war as a chance to 'see the world' while others, patriarchal in belief, wanted to help in aiding 'Mother Britain'. However, by mid-1915, news returned home, via the newspaper, of causalities lists revealing the reality of the Great War. Moral and social pressure, in combination with enthusiasm from cadets, pressured men to enlist. Women from the White Feather League gave eligible and unenlisted men a white feather (a symbol of cowardice) humiliating and hence further pressuring them into enlist.
Compulsory Military Training
Compulsory military training was first introduced through the Defence Act of 1909 following the Imperial Naval and Military Conference held in London that year. The Defence Act was introduced on 2 December and was passed on the 22 December 1909, abolishing the Volunteer Force in the hope to incorporate new members in the Territorial Force. Through the Defence Act the New Zealand government had the ability to impose every eligible New Zealand man into compulsory military training in the hope to create a permanent military force to aid the British Empire.
Under the guidelines of the Act, men
Consequences for refusal or failure to register
In the February of 1910, Field Marshal Kitchener, visited New Zealand (and Australia) to advise the territorial forces on training schemes, defence of the dominion and a review of the New Zealand Defence Act and volunteer units throughout the country. His influence deduced the same recommendations given to Australia, in the 'Memorandum on the Defence of Australia', while expressing his approval of proposed training schemes and suggested the age of the General Training Section to be raised to 25 years. The government set about implementing such suggestions and later passed The Defence Amendment Act in 1910, pushing volunteer movement for proposed military action.
Compulsory military training was to not exclusively discriminate or exempt specific individuals from the war movement but held basic principles that all men should be concerned and prepared to fight for the dominion and for the spectrum of New Zealand's reputable preparedness to fight for the British Empire.
Conscription- Key Idea
The need for conscription emerged as the loss of soldiers significantly surpassed the number of men enlisting at the time. 78,000 men had returned their National Registration forms saying they were not willing to volunteer in 1918. Campaigns to encourage enlistment only recruited 30% of all eligible New Zealand men.
Military Service Act 1916
The Military Service Bill was introduced to not only support and encourage volunteerism but to give another alternative to the New Zealand government and military officials; conscription. Conscription was a way to make men enter into military service if numbers were low and volunteering had started to thin out. There were many worries about conscription and a change in attitudes was observed amongst youths, who were ashamed to be branded as a ‘volunteer’. The theme of sacrifice divided men into opposing and favouring conscription. Those who opposed did not want to sacrifice their lives, for a purpose they didn’t believe in, if they didn’t have to. Men also saw the volunteers and the families of the volunteers who were explicitly effected, through death or injury. This deterred them to go to war. Those who favoured conscription wanted equality and didn’t see the fairness in volunteering when other men were allowed to stay at home. Acceptance and want summarised the Military Service Bill.
The Purpose & Effect/ benefit of Military Training
The need to adequately prepare men for combat on the Western Front whilst holding discipline in the hope to resist unlawfulness was the purpose of military training. This preparation was specifically harnessed during ‘peace time’ and understandably this would have given men patience and the ability to cope when under pressure. The effectiveness of a division was subsequently represented through the preparedness and reactions of the men, incorporating their physical and physiological coping mechanisms to such conflicts. It could be imagined that those men who were not well trained or who were faced with field punishment, out of unlawful behaviour, would have disastrously fought in comparison to those who were well trained. Military training also incorporated a level of discipline and thus Commanding Officers would have been able to effectively give their orders and men would have positively fought in combat due to this receptiveness found through discipline.
Emerging Objection to Compulsory Military Training & Conscription
Two resistance groups emerged after the introduction of the Defence Act; socialist and religious objectors. They objected to conscription on the grounds that their beliefs, towards the war movement, did not sit well with their conscience and were sufficient to exempt them from enlistment.
Religious Objectors- Christian Pacifists
Christian Pacifists developed a growing network of religious objectors to support their movement against military involvement. They took direction actions, such as setting up nationwide branches, council and advisory directives on how to resist conscription.
Actions of Christian Pacifists
Example: "We'll Set Our Children Free"
Don’t let a tyrant rule you while there’s honest men and true.
Never let the military get a grip of you,
Better send them packing – Godley, Ward, and all his crew,
And set your children free!
Chorus:-
Glory, glory, hallelujah,
Glory, glory, hallelujah,
Glory, glory, hallelujah,
We’ll set our children free. …
Cruel war and slaughter has held long enough its sway,
Burning homes, and killing wives and children where they play,
But now we have made up our minds that peace shall reign for aye,
And our children shall be free.
2000 people gathered at the Christchurch Cathedral Square to protests at the imprisonment of resisters James Worral and Alex Cooke. The next day, 1000 people gathered at the jail to demonstrate their disapproval, with PRU members urging and voting to repeal the Defence Act, singing their battle song "We'll Set Our Children Free" marching around the jail.
Socialist Objectors
Socialist objection, strongly led by the newly founded Labour Party in 1916, argued on the exploitation of the working class, war profiteering and criticised that it was an imperialist war. The Labour Party concluded that conscription should not be implemented unless it was in combination with 'conscription of wealth'. Many socialist union leaders and politicians actively spoke out on the issue with the notion of 'conscript wealth as well as men'.
Actions of Socialist Objectors
Apprentice workers of the Addington Railway Workshops in Christchurch established the Passive Resister's Union (PRU) in 1912, pledging themselves to the chant 'resist coercion, conscription and Compulsory Military Training under all circumstances and in defiance of all pains and penalties which may be imposed'. They undertook actions such as protests at drill halls to persuade men to resist conscription and promote support of the PRU and another protest was held at the King Edward Barracks, where members protested signs "Don't be a conscript! Be a man! and The Military Strike is now on!" whilst also wearing badges with red and white lettering denoting 'PRU'.
Conscientious Objectors
Conscientious Objectors, on the same grounds as religious and socialist objectors, consciously would not participate in any war movement and objected to enlistment, military training and the war in general. The men who continually refused conscription and military service were punished with an imprisonment sentence of up to two years and hard labour and those who continued to refuse after that were imprisoned again. Only Quakers, Christadelphians and Seventh- day Adventists gained automatic exemption from military service and any other exemptions were gained on very limited grounds. Towards the end of the war there were 188 conscientious objectors either in prison camps or sentenced with hard labour. By the end of the war;
New Zealand Conscientious Objectors- British Friends Trying to Trace Them
Annotation of Source:
Response to Source:
Upon reading this source, I have come to the conclusion that conscientious objectors were mainly faced with a form of intimidation by officers and from the opinions of New Zealanders, causing them to ‘obey’ orders and not act ‘out of order’. For example, this was displayed in the letter to the conscientious objectors, ‘the prison waits you, and a way of shame.’ This source was pretty telling of the attitudes towards punishment and treatment of conscientious objectors. James Allen, Minister of Defence has not denied the use of torturous methods to keep discipline, but I can infer these torturous methods through the reflections of the conscientious objectors themselves. Women’s council reveals attitudes towards conscientious objectors in the reasoning that it is not right to hold men against their will and take them to fight for a cause they do not believe in. In comparison to Allen’s opinion, it is the right of the government and New Zealand to take these men away to fight for their country, according to the Military Service Act. Government and officials were exercising their right to subject men against their own will using the Act as their ‘scapegoat’.
In 1917, defence minister James Allen believed conscientious objectors (shirkers) should be sent to the front line in France after their sentences had been served. Colonel H.R. Potter, Commanding Officer of Trentham Military Camp, secretly boarded 14 conscientious objectors on the troopship in Wellington harbour where they were sent to England then France.
The conscientious objectors who boarded were:
The men continued to protest and object by refusing to wear uniforms, undressing themselves down to their loincloths when they were forcibly dressed and refused to do work. As a consequence, the men were physically and verbally abused, punished with solitary confinement and a bread and water diet. Many of the 14 men were worn down by such punishments and further efforts were made in France to break the men. Three men decided to become stretcher bearers at Etaples Base while at Dunkirk, more men agreed to the movement. However, Baxter and Briggs, two leading figures in conscientious objection, continued with their protesting.
Archibald Baxter
Baxter came from a family who shared his socialist beliefs where six of seven brothers refused to enlist in the Great War. Baxter classed himself as a Christian socialist and pacifist, declaring himself a conscientious objector by the time the national register was taken in 1915. Baxter was arrested in November 1916 after being balloted following the introduction of conscription. Arguing and being denied exemption on religious grounds, he was moved from prison to prison, eventually being held in a prison at Trentham Military Camp. Baxter, along with brother John and Alex, were sent to the front line in France, boarding the same ship as Mark Briggs. Like Briggs, Baxter was sentenced to Field Punishment No.1 and continued his efforts to deny war efforts by refusing to co-operate and refusing to wear his uniform. Baxter was later separated from soldiers on the Front Line and was later found by British soldiers who took him to Boulogne hospital on 1 April 1918 where he was declared 'insane'. Baxter later shared his experience in the war through his book 'We Will Not Cease' which only gained notoriety in the 1980s. This published account, initiated with help from his wife, gave New Zealanders an insight into the treatment of conscientious objectors, shocking them at the proposed and allowed methods of controlling them in the hope to get them to the Front Line.
“I HAVE WONDERED THAT EDUCATED MEN CAN BE SO ILLOGICAL, FOR WHILE THIS LAW [THE SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST] MAY BE NATURAL ENOUGH THROUGHOUT THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, IN WAR IT IS NOT THE ‘FITTEST’ WHO SURVIVE, BUT A GREAT MANY OF THE WORLD’S FITTEST AND BEST MEN ARE SLAIN, WHILE A STILL GREATER NUMBER ARE RENDERED UNFIT. I AM AGAINST WAR ON THIS GROUND…”
Mark Briggs
At the age of 20, Briggs moved to New Zealand along with his widowed father and brother, gaining work at a various flaxmills in the Manawatu region. In October 1906, Briggs joined the Manawatu Flaxmill's Employees Industrial Union of Workers where he actively spread his socialist ideas, advocating for better pay and conditions for flax workers proving himself to be a radical figure in the war movement. Briggs was conscripted into the Army in December 1916 where he proceeded to refuse conscription and declared himself as a 'conscientious objector' on the grounds of his socialist beliefs. Refusing to attend his hearing and failing to make his medical examination, Briggs was sentenced to hard labour at Trentham Army Camp after he refused to drill. Briggs became the leader of the 14 conscientious objectors sent to France as he was known for his stubbornness and outright refusal to pertain to army regulations. He led the men into hunger strikes, refusing to wear the uniform and was later sentenced to Field Punishment No.1. Briggs actions were met with harsh punishments and officials did not take well to Briggs performance to deny any military involvement. In a harrowing incident, after Briggs refused to walk after being sent to the front line, he was dragged along the duckboards pulled by a cable tied around his waist. It has been stated that the fleshy wounds on his back were 'big enough to put your fist into'. Published in the Maoriland Worker, he wrote to Harry Holland: "I am having a very rough time of it, but have got through alive so far. I don't know what they intend to do with me, but I am determined to see it through, not matter what the consequences may be... my message is just the same as ever: 'Workers of the world, unite!': and to my enemies you can say that the spirit of Mark Briggs is still unbroken." (March 1918) Briggs, strong in will, has remained a figure to show that no matter what adversity or affliction to personal beliefs an individual may face, 'if there is a will there is a way'.
Why did New Zealanders go to war?
At the time war was declared, New Zealanders had little idea about what the war involved, the effect it would have on then and the expectation of fighting for the British Empire. Of the 240,000 New Zealand men, aged between 20 and 45 in 1915, 92,000 volunteered and 82,000 were conscripted to fight in WWI. Opportunistically the men viewed the war as a chance to 'see the world' while others, patriarchal in belief, wanted to help in aiding 'Mother Britain'. However, by mid-1915, news returned home, via the newspaper, of causalities lists revealing the reality of the Great War. Moral and social pressure, in combination with enthusiasm from cadets, pressured men to enlist. Women from the White Feather League gave eligible and unenlisted men a white feather (a symbol of cowardice) humiliating and hence further pressuring them into enlist.
Compulsory Military Training
Compulsory military training was first introduced through the Defence Act of 1909 following the Imperial Naval and Military Conference held in London that year. The Defence Act was introduced on 2 December and was passed on the 22 December 1909, abolishing the Volunteer Force in the hope to incorporate new members in the Territorial Force. Through the Defence Act the New Zealand government had the ability to impose every eligible New Zealand man into compulsory military training in the hope to create a permanent military force to aid the British Empire.
Under the guidelines of the Act, men
- from the age of 14 to 40, it was compulsory to be registered (Junior cadets from 12 to 14 years of age. (Abolished 1912).)
- training by the New Zealand Territorial Force started at the age of 18 to 21. (Senior cadets from 14 to 18.)
- Territorials from 18 to 21, later extended to 25 years, when men were posted to the Reserve until they were 30.
- Territorials were liable to serve in New Zealand only, but could volunteer for service overseas.
Consequences for refusal or failure to register
- for those who failed to register were fined, some even imprisoned.
- Men who refused to register were imprisoned and disenfranchised.
- Those who refused to train after registering were fined.
In the February of 1910, Field Marshal Kitchener, visited New Zealand (and Australia) to advise the territorial forces on training schemes, defence of the dominion and a review of the New Zealand Defence Act and volunteer units throughout the country. His influence deduced the same recommendations given to Australia, in the 'Memorandum on the Defence of Australia', while expressing his approval of proposed training schemes and suggested the age of the General Training Section to be raised to 25 years. The government set about implementing such suggestions and later passed The Defence Amendment Act in 1910, pushing volunteer movement for proposed military action.
Compulsory military training was to not exclusively discriminate or exempt specific individuals from the war movement but held basic principles that all men should be concerned and prepared to fight for the dominion and for the spectrum of New Zealand's reputable preparedness to fight for the British Empire.
Conscription- Key Idea
The need for conscription emerged as the loss of soldiers significantly surpassed the number of men enlisting at the time. 78,000 men had returned their National Registration forms saying they were not willing to volunteer in 1918. Campaigns to encourage enlistment only recruited 30% of all eligible New Zealand men.
Military Service Act 1916
The Military Service Bill was introduced to not only support and encourage volunteerism but to give another alternative to the New Zealand government and military officials; conscription. Conscription was a way to make men enter into military service if numbers were low and volunteering had started to thin out. There were many worries about conscription and a change in attitudes was observed amongst youths, who were ashamed to be branded as a ‘volunteer’. The theme of sacrifice divided men into opposing and favouring conscription. Those who opposed did not want to sacrifice their lives, for a purpose they didn’t believe in, if they didn’t have to. Men also saw the volunteers and the families of the volunteers who were explicitly effected, through death or injury. This deterred them to go to war. Those who favoured conscription wanted equality and didn’t see the fairness in volunteering when other men were allowed to stay at home. Acceptance and want summarised the Military Service Bill.
The Purpose & Effect/ benefit of Military Training
The need to adequately prepare men for combat on the Western Front whilst holding discipline in the hope to resist unlawfulness was the purpose of military training. This preparation was specifically harnessed during ‘peace time’ and understandably this would have given men patience and the ability to cope when under pressure. The effectiveness of a division was subsequently represented through the preparedness and reactions of the men, incorporating their physical and physiological coping mechanisms to such conflicts. It could be imagined that those men who were not well trained or who were faced with field punishment, out of unlawful behaviour, would have disastrously fought in comparison to those who were well trained. Military training also incorporated a level of discipline and thus Commanding Officers would have been able to effectively give their orders and men would have positively fought in combat due to this receptiveness found through discipline.
Emerging Objection to Compulsory Military Training & Conscription
Two resistance groups emerged after the introduction of the Defence Act; socialist and religious objectors. They objected to conscription on the grounds that their beliefs, towards the war movement, did not sit well with their conscience and were sufficient to exempt them from enlistment.
Religious Objectors- Christian Pacifists
Christian Pacifists developed a growing network of religious objectors to support their movement against military involvement. They took direction actions, such as setting up nationwide branches, council and advisory directives on how to resist conscription.
Actions of Christian Pacifists
- Louis P. Chrisitie founded the Anti- Militarist League in 1910. By 1911, 16 branches were set up throughout New Zealand. They also set about spreading their ideas by publishing 'The Anti- Militarist' journal.
- Charles Mackie, a Baptist preacher, founded the National Peace Council after the Defence Department sent letters to churches asking for the names of eligible boys to start military training.
- The Quakers, a Christian group, protested against Compulsory Military Training
- Egerton Gill established The New Zealand Freedom League to advise men on how to resist in Auckland.
Example: "We'll Set Our Children Free"
Don’t let a tyrant rule you while there’s honest men and true.
Never let the military get a grip of you,
Better send them packing – Godley, Ward, and all his crew,
And set your children free!
Chorus:-
Glory, glory, hallelujah,
Glory, glory, hallelujah,
Glory, glory, hallelujah,
We’ll set our children free. …
Cruel war and slaughter has held long enough its sway,
Burning homes, and killing wives and children where they play,
But now we have made up our minds that peace shall reign for aye,
And our children shall be free.
2000 people gathered at the Christchurch Cathedral Square to protests at the imprisonment of resisters James Worral and Alex Cooke. The next day, 1000 people gathered at the jail to demonstrate their disapproval, with PRU members urging and voting to repeal the Defence Act, singing their battle song "We'll Set Our Children Free" marching around the jail.
Socialist Objectors
Socialist objection, strongly led by the newly founded Labour Party in 1916, argued on the exploitation of the working class, war profiteering and criticised that it was an imperialist war. The Labour Party concluded that conscription should not be implemented unless it was in combination with 'conscription of wealth'. Many socialist union leaders and politicians actively spoke out on the issue with the notion of 'conscript wealth as well as men'.
Actions of Socialist Objectors
Apprentice workers of the Addington Railway Workshops in Christchurch established the Passive Resister's Union (PRU) in 1912, pledging themselves to the chant 'resist coercion, conscription and Compulsory Military Training under all circumstances and in defiance of all pains and penalties which may be imposed'. They undertook actions such as protests at drill halls to persuade men to resist conscription and promote support of the PRU and another protest was held at the King Edward Barracks, where members protested signs "Don't be a conscript! Be a man! and The Military Strike is now on!" whilst also wearing badges with red and white lettering denoting 'PRU'.
Conscientious Objectors
Conscientious Objectors, on the same grounds as religious and socialist objectors, consciously would not participate in any war movement and objected to enlistment, military training and the war in general. The men who continually refused conscription and military service were punished with an imprisonment sentence of up to two years and hard labour and those who continued to refuse after that were imprisoned again. Only Quakers, Christadelphians and Seventh- day Adventists gained automatic exemption from military service and any other exemptions were gained on very limited grounds. Towards the end of the war there were 188 conscientious objectors either in prison camps or sentenced with hard labour. By the end of the war;
- 73 objectors had been exempted
- 273 were imprisoned for refusing to serve
- 2,600 conscientious objectors, as a consequence of their actions lost their civil rights; denied voting for 10 years and were not allowed to work for the government or local bodies.
New Zealand Conscientious Objectors- British Friends Trying to Trace Them
Annotation of Source:
- Concern over the 14 conscientious objectors who had been sent to England.
- Making an inquiry over the men could result in trouble with the Government as the English government has no control over the NZ deportees. Ms Rowntree feels retribution would be received for interference.
- Sir James Allen holds the opinion that the Military Service Act has provided the means to reinforce that all men of military age are to be enlisted in military service, especially if they are medically fit.
- Fear that if the men would be released, a backlash would be received over the men who willingly went to war. He considers this ‘discrimination’. The theme, as I have identified in previous sources, of equality among sacrifice is evident in this letter.
- Women’s Institute cannot comprehend how Sir Allen does not know the whereabouts of New Zealand subjects. It would be assumed that he would considering he is in charge of such things and considering deportation is a big thing for young subjects.
- The Women’s Institute also highlights the treatment the men received, including handcuffed in irons, and bull rings and threatened to being shot.
- William McKenzie, Howard Hopkins and Daniel Brosnan were sentenced to two years imprisonment with hard labour for refusing to be soldiers. Charles E. Warren and Arthur Burrows had received twelve months hard labour for refusing to be soldiers. Interesting to note that this made the newspaper. Would this make the newspaper today? And to what extent would the New Zealand public appeal to this?
- Letter to the conscientious objectors; ‘your war is for the land.’ Tactic of making men feel guilty for resisting the war. ‘The prison waits you, and a way of shame.’ Making the men, and general public away, that resisting will be met with punishments especially imprisonment.
- Article includes letter from Harry Patton, a conscientious objector. His letter specifically details the treatment he received.
- When he refused to wear the pack, he was dragged about 200 yards. This seems harsh for refusal of wearing something. This was only slightly resisting.
- When he talked to a chaplain and explained his views, to which they obviously weren’t agreed with, he was placed in detention.
- Patton was there at the same time as Briggs.
- Letter from second conscientious objector. Even though they only slightly resisted, they were treated like they had seriously offended.
- Seems like officers like to keep complete control over the objectors, allowing them exercise 3 times a day. It could be imagined that this time would have been heavily restricted and observed by many officers.
- The example of the Cody Brothers highlights how military service intruded on every day lives e.g. the men were granted leave after the grass harvest. This harvest would have been a source of income and after these men left, the rest of the family probably would have struggled to maintain their properties and lives.
Response to Source:
Upon reading this source, I have come to the conclusion that conscientious objectors were mainly faced with a form of intimidation by officers and from the opinions of New Zealanders, causing them to ‘obey’ orders and not act ‘out of order’. For example, this was displayed in the letter to the conscientious objectors, ‘the prison waits you, and a way of shame.’ This source was pretty telling of the attitudes towards punishment and treatment of conscientious objectors. James Allen, Minister of Defence has not denied the use of torturous methods to keep discipline, but I can infer these torturous methods through the reflections of the conscientious objectors themselves. Women’s council reveals attitudes towards conscientious objectors in the reasoning that it is not right to hold men against their will and take them to fight for a cause they do not believe in. In comparison to Allen’s opinion, it is the right of the government and New Zealand to take these men away to fight for their country, according to the Military Service Act. Government and officials were exercising their right to subject men against their own will using the Act as their ‘scapegoat’.
In 1917, defence minister James Allen believed conscientious objectors (shirkers) should be sent to the front line in France after their sentences had been served. Colonel H.R. Potter, Commanding Officer of Trentham Military Camp, secretly boarded 14 conscientious objectors on the troopship in Wellington harbour where they were sent to England then France.
The conscientious objectors who boarded were:
- Fred Adin (flaxmill worker)
- Garth Ballantyne (surveyors clerk)
- Alex, John and Archibald Baxter (rural labourers)
- Mark Briggs (flaxmill workers and auctioneer)
- David Grey (farmer)
- Thomas Harland (musical instrument tuner )
- Lawrence Kriwin (plumber)
- William Little (coal truck driver)
- Daniel Maguire (flaxmill worker)
- Henry Patton (farm worker)
- Lewis Penwright (bushman)
- Albert Sanderson (farmer)
The men continued to protest and object by refusing to wear uniforms, undressing themselves down to their loincloths when they were forcibly dressed and refused to do work. As a consequence, the men were physically and verbally abused, punished with solitary confinement and a bread and water diet. Many of the 14 men were worn down by such punishments and further efforts were made in France to break the men. Three men decided to become stretcher bearers at Etaples Base while at Dunkirk, more men agreed to the movement. However, Baxter and Briggs, two leading figures in conscientious objection, continued with their protesting.
Archibald Baxter
Baxter came from a family who shared his socialist beliefs where six of seven brothers refused to enlist in the Great War. Baxter classed himself as a Christian socialist and pacifist, declaring himself a conscientious objector by the time the national register was taken in 1915. Baxter was arrested in November 1916 after being balloted following the introduction of conscription. Arguing and being denied exemption on religious grounds, he was moved from prison to prison, eventually being held in a prison at Trentham Military Camp. Baxter, along with brother John and Alex, were sent to the front line in France, boarding the same ship as Mark Briggs. Like Briggs, Baxter was sentenced to Field Punishment No.1 and continued his efforts to deny war efforts by refusing to co-operate and refusing to wear his uniform. Baxter was later separated from soldiers on the Front Line and was later found by British soldiers who took him to Boulogne hospital on 1 April 1918 where he was declared 'insane'. Baxter later shared his experience in the war through his book 'We Will Not Cease' which only gained notoriety in the 1980s. This published account, initiated with help from his wife, gave New Zealanders an insight into the treatment of conscientious objectors, shocking them at the proposed and allowed methods of controlling them in the hope to get them to the Front Line.
“I HAVE WONDERED THAT EDUCATED MEN CAN BE SO ILLOGICAL, FOR WHILE THIS LAW [THE SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST] MAY BE NATURAL ENOUGH THROUGHOUT THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, IN WAR IT IS NOT THE ‘FITTEST’ WHO SURVIVE, BUT A GREAT MANY OF THE WORLD’S FITTEST AND BEST MEN ARE SLAIN, WHILE A STILL GREATER NUMBER ARE RENDERED UNFIT. I AM AGAINST WAR ON THIS GROUND…”
Mark Briggs
At the age of 20, Briggs moved to New Zealand along with his widowed father and brother, gaining work at a various flaxmills in the Manawatu region. In October 1906, Briggs joined the Manawatu Flaxmill's Employees Industrial Union of Workers where he actively spread his socialist ideas, advocating for better pay and conditions for flax workers proving himself to be a radical figure in the war movement. Briggs was conscripted into the Army in December 1916 where he proceeded to refuse conscription and declared himself as a 'conscientious objector' on the grounds of his socialist beliefs. Refusing to attend his hearing and failing to make his medical examination, Briggs was sentenced to hard labour at Trentham Army Camp after he refused to drill. Briggs became the leader of the 14 conscientious objectors sent to France as he was known for his stubbornness and outright refusal to pertain to army regulations. He led the men into hunger strikes, refusing to wear the uniform and was later sentenced to Field Punishment No.1. Briggs actions were met with harsh punishments and officials did not take well to Briggs performance to deny any military involvement. In a harrowing incident, after Briggs refused to walk after being sent to the front line, he was dragged along the duckboards pulled by a cable tied around his waist. It has been stated that the fleshy wounds on his back were 'big enough to put your fist into'. Published in the Maoriland Worker, he wrote to Harry Holland: "I am having a very rough time of it, but have got through alive so far. I don't know what they intend to do with me, but I am determined to see it through, not matter what the consequences may be... my message is just the same as ever: 'Workers of the world, unite!': and to my enemies you can say that the spirit of Mark Briggs is still unbroken." (March 1918) Briggs, strong in will, has remained a figure to show that no matter what adversity or affliction to personal beliefs an individual may face, 'if there is a will there is a way'.
Mark briggs great war story
These photographs, taken of Thomas Moynihan a conscientious objector, explicitly reveals the treatment and intimidation methods faced in detention barracks and training camps during WWI. It is visible to note how Lieutenant J. L. Crampton physically pushes and antagonises Moynihan into a reaction.
Colonel K. W. R. writes ‘Cost of Inefficiency in Wartime’ with the focusing idea of facing the enemy unprepared. To competently prepare the men they would have had to undergone extensive training; through this conjuring a level of discipline (most importantly respect), which would have been needed to rally the men and to keep them as a complete unit ready to fight together. The idea of discipline also reflects how the morale of men would have benefited them in combat and relates to the idea of keeping them as a unit.
Source:
To Preserve Our Security The Case for Compulsory Military Training, Joint Defence Action Committee, Joint Defence Action Committee, 1949, pages 11-12
Source:
To Preserve Our Security The Case for Compulsory Military Training, Joint Defence Action Committee, Joint Defence Action Committee, 1949, pages 11-12